Digital Theory (new media)

 ini dia, digital teori yang sedang saya pelajari. mungkn ini bisa menajdi salah satu ringkasan yang bisa menginspirasi buat kalian.

            Starting in the nineteenth century, modern  is a generic term we give to the way that human societies respond to the changes that occurred during the industrial revolution. With roots in the Enlightenment period of the eighteenth century, modernism tends to challenge and theocratic
God-centered understanding of the world that have helped define the human community in the past.

Belief  With the support of in scientific certainty many aspects of modernism tend to have an optimistic belief in modernity to change people's lives for the better. However, due to modernization in the twentieth century developed, so that
brutal effects of science and industrialization of human life (especially in the First World War and the Second World War) became increasingly specialized jelas.Secara, many modernists come to see the industrialization as an enemy of free thought and individuality; yield universe becomes cold and without soul. This is the reason that the reaction against modernity modernism is often regarded as intense paradox. Development of science and technology alter the conception of society and ourselves, so that artists and intellectuals looking for new ways to represent and articulate the fragmentation of the 'brave new world' is.

Part of modernization based on the belief in the power of art and artists to change the world that lies behind his great distrust and hate the day-to-day type of culture can be found in the pulp novels, movies, television, comics, newspapers, magazines and so forth. There are many examples of modernism that reflects contempt for the media, but perhaps one of the most famous group of intellectuals to take an ideological stance is the "Frankfurt School". Exiled from Germany to America during the Second World War, a group of European Marxist dikejutkan oleh how America has much in common with the products of mass production. In particular, the Frankfurt School like to see the media as a standard product of industrialization, mass culture is often connected with aspects of Fordism. Fordism is the term used to describe Henry Ford's success in the automotive industry, particularly the improvement and development of methods of mass production assembly line in 1910. using mass production techniques mean that the car can be made cheaper and therefore more accessible to Americans. At  the Frankfurt School of Marxist theory, the philosophy is 'Fordist' is also visible in all aspects of mass culture, where every television shows, movies, pulp novels, magazines, and so all identical. They describe the 'Cultural Industries' clearly expressed their dislike for 'industries' products and their packaging formula. Rather than stimulate the audience, 'product' media is designed to keep the masses in their oppression by offering a homogeneous and cultural standards. Theodor W. Adorno explained with reference to popular music: "Aiming at Standardization Structural Reaction Standard: Listening to popular music not only manipulated by the promoters but, as it were, by the inherent nature of this music itself, become a system of response mechanisms entirely contrary to the idea of individuality in society, independent liberal This is how popular music listeners divests promote spontaneity and conditional reflexes.

Despite the pessimistic approach of the Frankfurt School to the media, can still be commended for at least take new forms of media are serious and worthy academic studies. This project was continued and developed by structuralist movement that became increasingly popular in the 1950s and the 1960s. Most grow out of belief in the power of science and rationalism, structuralism argues that the individual is formed by the structure of sociological, psychological and linguistic which they have little control. Semiotics plays a central role, in this effort, which applied to all kinds of cultural texts from cinema to advertising and from photography to comic.

Based on Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce's work on linguistics, semiotics established a clear and coherent methodology in which the meaning of any text can be read objectively as a system: 'Signs' of.

According to Marxists, the conclusive nature of textual readings given by the likes of Barthes, to leave little doubt that structuralism still see mass culture as primarily spread the ideology of the dominant force and all-persuasive. One of the most famous is Barthes. examples of processes in the workplace is a semiotic analysis of photographs on the cover. Paris Match magazine in 1955. Featuring a black soldier saluting the French flag, Barthes argues that this is an example of the media gave the French Imperialism positive image in moments of national crisis. So while a quasi-scientific method structuralism help to further legitimate the study of mass culture and media after the war, the conclusion still tend to show that viewers are powerless to resist the sense . With this way, then, we can begin to identify some key components with which the media and public companies has been compiled and analyzed during the first half of the twentieth century. In particular, the context of modernism gives us a theoretical insight into the way in which the media understood and ideological impulse that surely influenced the critical theories. Type theory approach generally does not trust the media, arguing that the audience needed to be protected from the influence of standard and shameful. Because it differs from the theoretical ideas that have now come to define 'digital theory and the role of New Media in the twentieth century and New Media. Post modernism While modernism is generally associated with the early phase of industrial revolution, postmodernism (first identified in the architecture (see Jenks 1984) is more commonly associated with many changes that have occurred after the revolution industry. An post-industrial economy (sometimes known as post- Ford ), is one in which the economic transition has occurred from the economy based manufacturing economy based services . society is characterized by the emergence of information technology, globalization of financial markets, growth in service and white collar workers and the decline of heavy industry (see Bell 1976). Not surprisingly, it seems that culture and politics generated by the '-post-industrial "society will be very different which is dominated by the industrial context of modernism.
Cultural change can be partially understood as a product of consumer society, where consumption and leisure are now determining our experience of work and produksi.Ini mean that 'consumer culture' came to dominate the field of culture; that the market determines the texture and experience of our daily life.In the world of 'postmodern' there is no reference point outside of commodities and every flavor of technology.

Changes in post-industrial society has clearly influenced the way critical theory now understands and conceives the role of the media who currently play in society. In particular, there has been a clear shift away from the cultural pessimism that once defined the modernist approach to the media found the Frankfurt School. Perhaps the first signs of such a critical shift can be detected in the work of McLuhan. While McLuhan share a lot of anxiety about the influence of modernist ideology of the media on the audience who cheated and helpless (See, for example, his initial analysis of the adverse effects of advertising in The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man (1951)), his work often betrayed a spirit and excitement for the media who rarely detected in modernist critical theory. Even the writing style seemed lost in fragmented message from the electronic media with the famous aphorisms such as 'medium is the message' appears to mimic the advertising slogans or sound bites. Indeed, the initial use of the term 'surfing' (to refer to fast motion, irregular and multi-directional through the body of the document), preceded the World Wide Web and multi-channel television by about 30 years. As Levinson (1999) showed in Digital McLuhan, many of his works anticipate the power of New Media to enhance interactivity with the audience of electronic information as a whole - the transformation we are all 'voyeurs to the participants. The Theory  in the conception of the media and the audience later done by a lot of work information by post-structuralism. While modernist structuralism generally reflect the need to uncover the latent meaning of ideology is embedded in the text of the media, post-structuralism tends to take a less deterministic view of the nature of the media as a whole. Influenced by the work of theorists like Louis Althusser (1971) and Antonio   Gramsci (1971), media analysis gradually began to recognize the ideology that is more complex than first imagined, that the media audience can resist ideological meaning and that texts themselves can 'Polysemic ', ie, consisting of several meanings. It will mean that the modernist insistence that media texts can be stripped to a single meaning of ideology becomes increasingly untenable.

Post-structuralism emphasizes slippage between one sign and the next, between one context and meaning are always situated on the next .  casual, specific to a given context ...
The theory of psychoanalysis and ideology, under the influence of poststructuralism, focusing on gaps and cracks, who missed the incoherencies structuring and, in the text of the uncertain meaning. in the text is central to many of poststructuralist theory, a very significant change which the contemporary research not only understand the media but also the recipient or 'readers'. In particular the influence, of poststructuralist theory analysis of the media means that current research tends to be less emphasis on how text is encoded (by its manufacturer) for the ways it is translated (by accepting it). Originally called the gratifications tradition ', a new method of analysis has produced a wealth of media
material which attempted to show how complex the production of meaning between the text and the audience really is. This is a profound move away from modernist and structuralist conception of the audience as passive cultural dupes, re-imagine them not as an active participant in the production of meaning. As this suggests, it is important to both postmodern and poststructuralist views of the world is the idea that meaning it’ self can never be fully pinned down. Developing an understanding of cultural structuralism through linguistic structures, post-structuralism argues that reality can only truly be known through language and discourse. This means that not only reflects the real world and the plain, language construction actually our view of ourselves and our understanding of 'the real'. So rather than looking for deeper meaning there are wonderful beyond language and discourse, post-structuralism tends to analyze the discursive and practical conditions by the 'truth' is constructed. So while modern tend to seek meaning and truth among the chaos and fragmentation of the modern world, postmodernism appears to accept that efforts to universal  truth is futile. The instability of this 'truth' is linked to the postmodernist claim  that at the end the people of the twentieth century has gradually become more skeptical about the utopian theories such as the Enlightenment and Marxism. Reject them as 'grand' narrative, postmodern theorists tend to categorize the total world view as nothing more than linguistic and narrative construction. While it may be difficult to imagine such a theory in the world most in the grip of religious fundamentalism, the belief in the possibility of utopian modernism does not seem up for grabs. Critics argue the Western world increasingly cynical. The theory  tell  Jean-François Lyotard: In contemporary society and culture of postindustrial society, postmodern culture has lost its credibility large, regardless of the way unification was used.  Speculative narrative or a narrative of emancipation Every time we go looking for the cause in this case we would be disappointed.
Indeed, some critics argue that the postmodern is now increasingly impossible to distinguish between 'image' media and 'real' - that each partner has become so highly intertwined that is difficult to draw a line between the two. According to the philosopher Baudrillard (1994), in contemporary society is now even a copy of the simulated object was replaced this. Phenomenon   Baudrillard refers to as 'third order of simulacra' which produces state of 'hyper reality'. This does not mean that only the line between media images and the real has become blurred, but rather that the media and real images are now part of the same entity and therefore can’t now be separated at all. As Best and Kellner said, 'reality and unreality are not mixed like oil and water, but they dissolved like two sour'. Some critics even claimed that the difference between machine and man, now began to disappear, tend to eliminate 'human being' old binary oppositions 'technology' versus over which so many pessimistic theory of modernism is based. Although the idea of a cyborg (hybrid of machine and organism) may be still in the infancy of science, feminist critics such as Donna Hathaway (1991) have used it as a metaphor for the power to deconstruct essentialist ideas of gender and identity in a world of 'posthuman'. As Mark Dery said: our interactions with the world around us increasingly mediated by computer technology, and that, bit by bit digital, we're 'Borged', as fans of Star Trek: The Next Generation will have it - turned into cyborgian hybrid technology and biology through we never morefrequent interaction with machines, or with one another through technology interface. To some critics, then, as the theoretical framework gives us a new critical arena through which we can begin to understand and take into account various aspects of New Media. For example, postmodernists distrust postructuralist and a stable and permanent idea of the 'real' tend to reflect the new media landscape in which such traditional definition increasingly becomes problematized by new technology. With the advent of artificial intelligence, cyberculture, virtual communities and virtual reality, our understanding of what is 'real' and what is 'real' clearly experiencing a dramatic transformation. For example, there is a real company that is now placing ads in virtual worlds like Second Life, an artificial environment that significantly affect a sale. So how can we separate the 'real' in this example of 'virtual'? What part of the virtual world is 'real' and what part is not? Admittedly, this extreme example, but as a sociologist David Holmes shows, it is illustrative of a broader type of technological change and cultural developments in the New Media is currently producing: From the myriad of cultural and technological transformations taking place today, one has emerged to provides perhaps the most obvious opportunity for understanding the political and ethical dilemmas of contemporary society. The arrival of virtual reality and virtual community, both as a metaphor of cultural processes and the broader context of the material began to enframe human body and human communication.

             Because it shows problems of what we once recognized as 'real' will definitely affect the idea that we might have an 'authentic self', a conception of identity in the postmodern world becomes more fluid and contestable. In particular, it has been argued that the media generally increased interactivity allows viewers to play with and create their own composite identity of the various and sometimes conflicting sources. This process is referred to by Hartley (1999: 177-85) 'DIY citizenship' as the idea that the media now allows us to all create our own complex, diverse and ideas of many aspects of personal identity. With so many different communities are now open for us on the web, we can begin to just pick and choose the identity we want to adopt and which we want to reject, allows an individual to decide how they define themselves not just have to stick to a narrow number limited options that once defined the past. This is in contrast to a world where identity is primarily a problem of inheritance. Fluid notion of identity would seem to directly contradict with the concept of citizenship and identity that is spread by the basics of the information the roots of modernism, especially concepts such as public service broadcasting. John Reith conception of 'culture' and 'British', for example, now seems to be unforgivably narrow and restrictive in the world, transnational multicultural (what McLuhan (1962) described well-known as the 'global village') are now many live in thanks to the arrival of email, satellite and global television. Postmodernist critics might argue that even the notion of 'broadcasting' own total concept that never managed to reflect the sheer diversity of the nation or people (see Creeber 2004). The phrase 'narrowcasting' - which is used to indicate the New Media pronounced interest in handling and catering to a niche audience - might be better summarized the role of television and radio in a multimedia world. As we have seen, the increase in audience interactivity in the context of New Media is also articulated in poststructuralist theory yang tendency to conceive the audience as active participators in the creation. Website such as YouTube, MySpace and Facebook appear to reflect a new understanding of 'participatory culture', not only created a virtual community but also enables its visitors to become 'producers' and 'recipient' of the media. The theory of 'fandom' is important here with the internet allows fans to create various forms of cultural virtual communities that add genuine understanding their interests and even the selected content (see Chapter 7). For example, the emergence of 'slash fiction' allows the audience to actively participate in the production of meaning by creating extratextual material about their favorite television programs (see Jenkins, 2006b). As a result, rather than be seen as essentially a commercial and inactive, in the postmodern world consumption itself is now regarded as a positive and participatory action. As Mackay says, 'Instead of being, passive secondary, determined activity, consumption is seen as an activity with its own practice, tempo,

significance and determination '(1997: 3-4). ideas are clear information David Gauntlett's concept of 'Media Studies 2', a manifestation of the theory of Tim O'Reilly's idea of Web 2, a world in which users generate and distribute content, often with freedom to share, create, use and reuse. Indeed, 'top-down' John Reith culture 'lift' it seems very excessive in world in which audiences increasingly determine their own choice of media and what they do with it.The 'cut' hypertextual and 'paste' culture of New Media - that seem to encourage sampling, hunting and remixing - producing not only copyright issues, the more confusing it is also very means by which we call the media and its relationship with the audience. Of course, the idea that media organizations like the BBC can be so rigid dictate public taste seems almost unimaginable now. As Lev Manovich shows, now we may need a completely new theory of the writer to help us understand the current relationship between the media and the audience, one that fit: perfectly with the logic of post-industrial society and advanced industries, where almost every practical action involves choosing from several catalogs, menus, or the database. Even ... New Media is the best available expression of the logic of identity in society - to choose the values of a number of options
on the menu. This interactivity between the audience rose in New Media are also asked some critics to suggest that there even has been a 'democratization increased in the nature of New Media as compared with the old. 'Citizen Journalism' (where people use blogs, photo or recording the phone to make and comment on today's news) is one current examples among many of the postmodernists might choose to describe increase the ability of 'ordinary' people to become actively involved in the very production of media; moving power away from the 'author' into the hands of 'audience'. Indeed, for theories such as Mark Poster (1997), the Internet provides 'Habermasian public sphere' - a network cyberdemocratic to communicate information and viewpoints that will eventually turn into public opinion. As the voice on the Internet becomes more widely so that it can improve even further our democratic rights. Postmodern context I have described here tend to put New Media in a particularly positive light, as if technology itself is only open rate increase audience participation, creative involvement and democracy. However, other chapters in this book will clearly describe some more negative features of this New Media world, not a little 'digital divide' that enable today only a small planet to participate in digital new culture. even in West, not all participants are created . As New Media Henry Jenkins explains,'Corporations - and even individuals in the corporate media - still exert greater power than individual consumers or even aggregate consumer. And some consumers have greater ability to participate in a culture that emerged from the others'. Similarly, some critics see 'the myth of interactivity' that, on the grounds that participatory nature of New Media has been over-improved so that now people refuse to see the limitations. 'To state an interactive system', Espen  Aarseth warns us, is to support the power of magic '. Critics also argue that the view of postmodernism and New Media turning citizens into consumers apolitical democracy, no longer able to distinguish between illusion and reality simulation of the harsh media capitalist society that hides them implisit. Much critics argue that the political landscape is now even a victory picture above substance, frightening symbol McLuhan et al (1967) maxim that 'the medium is the message', ie a world where how something is presented is actually more important than what was presented. In particular, these critics tend to argue that the postmodern obsession with 'image' of the 'depth' to produce shallow and artificial environments in which few are serious, it is the dominant aesthetic of 'camp' has turned all things into entertainment. Like Neil Postman puts it: television us made us in constant communication with the world, but do it with a smiling face faces that can’t be changed. The problem is not that television presents us with the subject of entertaining but that all subjects are presented as entertaining Postman's nightmare vision of a world where all information that is packaged as entertainment may be facilitated by a form of New Media which seems to give us so many choices, but ultimately ends up by limiting the real choice; reduce everything exactly the product commodified and same   consumer . Critical argue that the strength of the revolutionary avant-garde has now been reduced to mere commercialization, radical forms of modernism and aesthetics are used to sell alcohol and cigarettes in the ad (what David Harvey called 'the official art Capitalisime . Another than enhance the ability of people to play with different identities, critics even argue that the globalization of the world (in part facilitated by the New Media) can actually reduce national identity and culture as we all become more similar and homogeneous culture . This process has been described by one critic as provocative 'McDonaldization' of society.

The Internet also has been accused of narrowing the choice down and encourage people's obsession with trivial things worthless and insignificant like a strange hobby and low-quality television shows (see McCracken 2003). 

Meanwhile, details of the scope of 'private' and 'public' (the public arena treat cyberspace as if it was private) have serious implications on civil freedoms are only now fully recognized. Recently, for example, has come to light that many businesses quietly using sites like MySpace to ensure the online personality of an employee in the future (see Finder 2006). Similarly, it is still difficult to understand the democratization of media is really happening in countries like China where Google and Rupert Murdoch seem happy to work with strict censorship of non-democratic government to gain access to a large potential financial state.
          
Some critics of postmodernism also argued that if there is a breakdown between 'image' and 'real', then we are entering an age of 'moral relativism' where critical or moral judgments can be exercised and some theorists even discuss where the 'reality' such .  It argues, would produce harmful media and unregulated, where hardcore pornography endless sitting next to a chat room that prey on the young and innocent or websites that give voice to extremist political forces. New Media may seem to offer the world of glossy pictures and communication without limits, but it is also important to remember who and what is left of the postmodern embrace. Technological utopianism might say that New Media will automatically improve our world for the better, but our future prosperity lies clear on how and what we do with the choices we now have on offer.
             The conclusion that we can take is any theoretical point of view we can take on New Media, it's hard to argue that the media itself is not under the big change for 20 or 30 years. Therefore we need a new theoretical framework that allows us to understand and appreciate both positive and negative features of our current media age. This means that a critical understanding of the field is essential if we want to produce sophisticated theoretical approach. As I mentioned at the beginning of this section, would be naive to suggest that the methodological and theoretical approaches to New Media never be made and considered to be definitive, but this section is only intended to offer a framework in which a number of approaches that can more carefully the context and close. New Media Theory is still in early stages of development and there are a lot of work to be done to refine and extend some basic argument set forth here and elsewhere in this book. However, I hope that what is clear now is that since the conception, the media has been analyzed and tested through most of the various schools, theories and methodologies. I hope that just to set some of this in the 'modernist' and 'postmodern' their context, he has helped to clarify too much debate going on within and around the field as a whole. Although other chapters in this book may not refer explicitly to modernism or postmodernism, they certainly will give greater understanding to some basic theoretical ideas introduced here. 'Of digital theory' may not have discipline in its own right, but his presence will be felt throughout this book and the way that we call the New Media long into the future.

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